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B. F. Skinner
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist and author. He conducted pioneering work on experimental psychology and advocated behaviorism, which seeks to understand behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcement. He also wrote a number of controversial works in which he proposed the widespread use of psychological behavior modification techniques, primarily operant conditioning, in order to improve society and increase human happiness, as a form of social engineering. Skinner was born in rural Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. He attended Hamilton College in New York with the intention of becoming a writer and received a B.A. in English literature in 1926. After graduation, he spent a year in Greenwich Village attempting to become a writer of fiction, but he soon became disillusioned with his literary skills and concluded that he had little world experience and no strong personal perspective from which to write. During this time, which Skinner later called "the dark year," he chanced upon a copy of Bertrand Russell's recently published book An Outline of Philosophy, in which Russell discusses the behaviorist philosophy of psychologist John B. Watson. At the time, Skinner had begun to take more interest in the actions and behaviors of those around him, and some of his short stories had taken a "psychological" slant. He decided to abandon literature and seek admission as a graduate student in psychology at Harvard University (which at the time was not regarded as a leading institution in that field). Skinner received a Ph.D. from Harvard in 1931 and remained at that institution as a researcher until 1936. He then taught at the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis and later at Indiana University before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948. He remained there for the rest of his career. Skinner was granted numerous awards in his lifetime. In 1968, he received the National Medal of Science by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Three years later, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the American Psychological Foundation, and in 1972, he was given the Humanist of the Year Award of the American Humanist Association. Just eight days before his death, he received the first Citation for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology by the American Psychological Association (Epstein, 1997). Behaviorism Skinner was mainly responsible for the development of the philosophy of radical behaviorism and for the further development of applied behavior analysis, a branch of psychology which aims to develop a unified framework for animal and human behavior based on principles of learning. He conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement and demonstrated operant conditioning, a behavior modification technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning. Skinner did not advocate the use of punishment. His research suggested that punishment was an ineffective way of controlling behavior, leading generally to short-term behavior change, but resulting mostly in the subject attempting to avoid the punishing stimulus instead of avoiding the behavior that was causing punishment. A simple example of this is the failure of prison to eliminate criminal behavior. If prison (as a punishing stimulus) were effective at altering behavior, there would be no criminality, since the risk of imprisonment for criminal conduct is well established. However, individuals still commit offences, but attempt to avoid discovery and therefore punishment. The punishing stimulus does not stop criminal behaviour. The criminal simply becomes more sophisticated at avoiding the punishment. Reinforcement, both positive and negative (the latter of which is often confused with punishment), proves to be more effective in bringing about lasting changes in behaviour. Superstition in the pigeon One of Skinner 's most famous and interesting experiments examined the formation of superstition in one of his favorite experimental animals, the pigeon. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon "at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird's behavior". He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery of the food with whatever chance actions they had been performing as it was delivered, and that they continued to perform the same actions: :One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns between reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. A third developed a 'tossing' response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulum motion of the head and body, in which the head was extended forward and swung from right to left with a sharp movement followed by a somewhat slower return. ("'Superstition' in the Pigeon", B.F. Skinner, Journal of Experimental Psychology #38, 1948 http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/) Skinner suggested that the pigeons believed that they were influencing the automatic mechanism with their "rituals" and that the experiment also shed light on human behavior: :The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort of superstition. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behavior and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking. There are many analogies in human behavior. Rituals for changing one's fortune at cards are good examples. A few accidental connections between a ritual and favorable consequences suffice to set up and maintain the behavior in spite of many unreinforced instances. The bowler who has released a ball down the alley but continues to behave as if she were controlling it by twisting and turning her arm and shoulder is another case in point. These behaviors have, of course, no real effect upon one's luck or upon a ball half way down an alley, just as in the present case the food would appear as often if the pigeon did nothing -- or, more strictly speaking, did something else. (Ibid.) Modern behavioral psychologists have disputed Skinner's "superstition" explanation for the behaviors he recorded. Subsequent research (for instance, by Staddon and Simmelhag in 1971) failed to replicate his results. Eduardo J. Fernandez of the Department of Psychology of Indiana University sought to follow up on Staddon and Simmelhag's debunking of Skinner's hypothesis and to "further contrast superstitious versus functional interpretations of behavior" in pigeons. In a 2004 paper titled "Superstition Re-revisited: An Examination of Niche-Related Mechanisms Underlying Schedule Produced Behavior in Pigeons," he demonstrated that what Skinner had seen as "supersitious" behaviour was accounted for by the natural foraging behaviours of the species he used as test subjects. Social engineering Skinner is popularly known mainly for his controversial books Walden Two and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Walden Two describes a visit to an imaginary utopian commune in the 1940s United States, where the productivity and happiness of the citizens is far in advance of that in the outside world due to their practice of scientific social planning and the use of operant conditioning in the raising of children. Walden Two, like Thoreau's Walden, champions a lifestyle that does not support war or foster competition and social strife. It encourages a lifestyle of minimal consumption, rich social relationships, personal happiness, satisfying work and leisure. Beyond Freedom and Dignity advanced the thesis that social concepts such as free will and human dignity (by which Skinner meant belief in individual autonomy) were obsolete, and stood in the way of greater human happiness and productivity. Skinner was opposed to inhumane treatment and bad government, but he argued that the champions of freedom went so far as to deny causality in human action so they could champion the "free person." In a sense, the champions of freedom were enemies of a scientific way of knowing. There is a rough parallel here to the book Higher Superstition in the identification of opponents to scientific knowledge, except Skinner here is being much more general in the opponents actually identified. As understood by Skinner, ascribing dignity to individuals involves giving them credit for their actions. To say "Skinner is brilliant" means that Skinner is an originating force. If Skinner is right, he is merely the focus of his environment. He is not an originating force and he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the things he did. Skinner's environment and genetics both allowed and compelled him to write his book (though this does not entail that the book's claims are untrue, which is a separate issue). Similarly, the environment and genetic potentials of the advocates of freedom and dignity cause them to resist the reality that their own activities are deterministically grounded. Rumors One often-repeated story claims that Skinner ventured into human experiments by raising his daughter Deborah in a Skinner box, which led to her life-long mental illness and a bitter resentment towards her father. In fact, the Heir Conditioner, a term for Skinner's baby crib, was heated, cooled, had filtered air, allowed plenty of space to walk around in, and was much like a miniature version of a modern home. It was designed to make the baby more confident, more comfortable, less sick, less prone to cry, and so on. Reportedly it had some success in these goals. In 2004, psychologist and author Lauren Slater published a book, Opening Skinner's Box, which mentioned claims that Deborah Skinner (now Deborah Skinner Buzan) unsuccessfully sued her father for abuse, and later committed suicide. In response, Buzan herself came forward to publicly denounce the story as nothing more than hearsay and presumably to vouch for her own continued existence. She blasted Lauren Slater's book for repeating this urban legend as being vicious and harmful. Guardian Newspapers Limited - online Farhad Manjoo, a writer for Salon.com, protested in a 2004 literary review that Buzan's Guardian article 'reads as if she has never even picked up Slater's book', observed that 'Slater's description of the box is pretty much in line with Buzan's description in the Guardian', and called the book 'a genuinely compelling read'. >[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_05_28.html How free is free will? Salon.com (on Powell Books) by Farhad Manjoo, 28 May 2004]. Manjoo continued, 'Slater writes that it was actually an "an upgraded playpen" whose "thermostatically controlled environment" prevented diaper rash and other kiddie ailments, reduced the chance of suffocation by blanket, and allowed the daughter to walk around without any impediments, building a baby of impressive self-confidence.' Political Views Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and humane science of behavioral control - a behavioral technology - could solve human problems which were not solved by earlier approaches or were actively aggravated by advances in physical technology such as the atomic bomb. One of Skinner's stated goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself. Skinner was sometimes accused of being a totalitarian by his critics. In addition to his aspirations to state design, Skinner was a determinist, believing that all of our behavior is profoundly determined and influenced by the environment. Skinner saw the problems of political control not as a battle of versus freedom, but as choices of what kinds of control were used for what purposes. Skinner opposed the use of coercion, punishment and fear and supported the use of [[positive reinforcement]. Skinner's book Walden Two presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society which applies a practical, scientific approach and futuristically advanced behavioral expertise to peacefully deal with social problems. Skinner's like every other utopia or dystopia, is both a thought experiment and a [rhetorical work. Skinner answers a problem that exists in many utopian novels "What is the Good Life?" Skinner answers that it is a life of friendship, health, art, a healthy balance between work and leisure, a minimum of unpleasantness, and a feeling that one has made worthwhile contributions to one's society. Additionally Skinner felt behavioral technology would offer alternatives to coercion, good science applied right would help society, and we would all be better off if we cooperated with each other peacefully. Skinner's novel has been described by Skinner as "my New Atlantis" referring to Francis Bacon's utopia. Intellectual opponents, such as Noam Chomsky, in their attempt to show Skinner wrong, have equated Skinner's philosophic determinism with political oppression. Skinner has often been equated to political and social positions he never espoused and even explicitly objected to. Trivia According to a photo caption at the site of Los Horcones community (which was inspired by Skinner's Walden Two), in his youth Skinner used to swim in Thoreau's Walden Pond. Los Horcones: a Walden Two Community Publication Books *Skinner, B.F. (1938)The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. ISBN 1-58390-007-1, ISBN 0-87411-487-X. *''Walden Two, 1948. ISBN 0-02-411510-X. *Skinner, B.F. (1953)''Science and Human Behavior. ISBN 0-02-929040-6. *Skinner, B.F. (1957)Schedules of Reinforcement, with C. B. Ferster, . ISBN 0-13-792309-0. *Skinner, B.F. (1957)Verbal Behavior. ISBN 1-58390-021-7. *Skinner, B.F. (1961)The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self Instruction, with James G. Holland, . This self-instruction book is no longer in print, but the B.F. Skinner Foundation web site has an interactive version. ISBN 07-029565-4. *Skinner, B.F. (1968)The Technology of Teaching. *Skinner, B.F. (1969)Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis. ISBN 390-81280-3. *Skinner, B,F. (1972)Beyond Freedom and Dignity. ISBN 0-394-42555-3. *Skinner, B,F. (1974)About Behaviorism. ISBN 0-394-49201-3 *Skinner, B,F. (1976)Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography. ISBN 0-394-40071-2. *Skinner, B,F. (1978)Reflections on Behaviorism and Society. ISBN 0-13-770057-1. *Skinner, B,F. (1979)The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part Two of an Autobiography. ISBN 0-394-50581-6. *Skinner, B. F. (1967). B. F. Skinner. East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts. *Skinner, B. F. (1972). Cumulative record: A selection of papers. (3rd ed.). East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts. *Skinner, B. F. (1988). Behaviorism at fifty. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *Skinner, B. F. (1988). Methods and theories in the experimental analysis of behavior. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *Skinner, B. F. (1988). An operant analysis of problem solving. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *Skinner, B. F. (1988). The operational analysis of psychological terms. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *Skinner, B. F. (1988). Selection by consequences. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *Skinner, B. F. (1995). "The Behavior of Organisms" at fifty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press/Greenwood Publishing Group. *Skinner, B. F. (1996). Some responses to the stimulus "Pavlov." Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science Vol 31(3) Jul-Sep 1996, 254-257. *Skinner, B. F. (1998). The experimental analysis of operant behavior: A history. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Skinner, B. F. (1999). Baby in a box. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. *''Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management'', with M. E. Vaughan, 1983. *''A Matter of Consequences: Part Three of an Autobiography'', 1983. ISBN 0-394-53266-0, ISBN 0-8147-7845-3. *''Upon Further Reflection'', 1987. ISBN 0-13-938986-5. *''Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior'', 1989. ISBN 0-675-20674-X. *''Cumulative Record: A Selection of Papers'', 1959, 1961, 1972 and 1999 as Cumulative Record: Definitive Edition. This book includes the authentic account of the much-misrepresented "Baby in a box" device. ISBN 1-58390-00505. Papers *Skinner, B. F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review, 57, 193–216. *Skinner, B. F. (1966). The phylogeny and ontogeny of behavior. Science, 153, 1205–1213. *Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. *Skinner, B. F. (1981). Selection by consequences.Science, 213, 501–504. *Skinner, B. F. (1984). The evolution of behavior.Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,41, 217–221. *Skinner, B. F. (1988a). Reply to Gottlieb. In A. C. Catania & S. Harnard (Eds.), The selection of behavior: The operant behaviorism of B. F. Skinner:Comments and consequences (p. 430). New York: Cambridge University Press. *Skinner, B. F. (1988b). What are the scopes and limits of radical behaviorist theory: Reply to Harnard. In A. C. Catania & S. Harnard (Eds.), The selection of behavior: The operant behaviorism of B. F. Skinner: Comments and consequences (pp.465–473). New York: Cambridge University Press. *Skinner, B. F. (1990). Can psychology be a science of mind? American Psychologist, 45, 1206–1210. *Skinner, B. F. (1999). Some responses to the stimulus "Pavlov": Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Vol 72(3) Nov 1999, 463-465. *Skinner, B. F. (2001). The design of cultures: Behavior and Social Issues Vol 11(1) Fal 2001, 4-13. *Skinner, B. F. (2006). Special Article: Russia, 1961: The Spanish Journal of Psychology Vol 9(1) May 2006, 115-142. *Skinner, B. F., & Green, L. (2004). Psychology in the year 2000: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Vol 81(2) Mar 2004, 207-213. *Smith, B. D., & Vetter, H. J. (1996). A behavioral approach: B. F. Skinner. Needham Heights, MA, England: Simon & Schuster Custom Publishing. Papers *Adelman, B. E. (2007). An underdiscussed aspect of Chomsky (1959): Analysis of Verbal Behavior Vol 23 2007, 29-34. *Alessi, G. (1992). Models of proximate and ultimate causation in psychology: American Psychologist Vol 47(11) Nov 1992, 1359-1370. *Al-Khatib, J. (1990). B. F. Skinner's concept in Arabic introductory psychology textbooks: Dirasat Vol 17A(4) Oct 1990, 129-144. *Amsel, A. (1992). B. F. Skinner and the cognitive revolution: Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry Vol 23(2) Jun 1992, 67-70. *Andery, M. A., Micheletto, N., & Serio, T. M. (2005). Meaning and verbal behavior in Skinner's work from 1934 to 1957: Analysis of Verbal Behavior Vol 21 2005, 163-174. *Andery, M. A., & Serio, T. M. (2002). Is thinking a category in Skinner's system of behavior? : Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicologia Vol 54(3) 2002, 274-283. *Andresen, J. (1991). Skinner and Chomsky 30 years later or: The return of the repressed: Behavior Analyst Vol 14(1) Spr 1991, 49-60. *Andresen, J. T. (1992). The behaviorist turn in recent theories of language: Behavior and Philosophy Vol 20(1) Spr-Sum 1992, 1-19. *Azevedo Pires Serio, T. M. d. (1993). Re-reading B. F.Skinner and learning with him: Acta Comportamentalia Vol 1(2) Dec 1993, 155-166. *Baars, B. J. (2003). The double life of B.F. Skinner: Inner conflict, dissociation and the scientific taboo against consciousness: Journal of Consciousness Studies Vol 10(1) 2003, 5-25. *Baars, B. J. (2003). Reply to comments on "The double life of B. F. Skinner": Journal of Consciousness Studies Vol 10(1) 2003, 79-94. *Balcazar, F. E. (2001). The role of the behavior scientist in the design of counter culture: Behavior and Social Issues Vol 11(1) Fal 2001, 17-18. *Baum, W. M. (2004). The accidental behaviorist: A review of the new behaviorism by John Staddon: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Vol 82(1) Jul 2004, 73-78. *Baum, W. M. (2004). 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Skinner: The Spanish Journal of Psychology Vol 7(2) Nov 2004, 135-140. *Vogeltanz, N. D., & Plaud, J. J. (1992). On the goodness of Skinner's system of naturalistic ethics in solving basic value conflicts: Psychological Record Vol 42(4) Fal 1992, 457-468. *Watt, D. (2003). Commentary: Journal of Consciousness Studies Vol 10(1) 2003, 74-78. *Wiener, D. N. (1992). Contributions to the history of psychology: LXXXVIII: Skinner at 86: An appreciation: Psychological Reports Vol 70(3, Pt 2), Spec Issue Jun 1992, 1023-1026. *Wiener, D. N. (1996). B. F. Skinner: Benign anarchist. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. *Wilson, K. G., & Blackledge, J. T. (2000). Recent developments in the behavioral analysis of language: Making sense of clinical phenomena. Reno, NV: Context Press. *Wixted, J. (2008). JEAB and the Skinnerian interpretation of behavior: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Vol 89(1) Jan 2008, 137-139. *Wyatt, W. J. (2000). Behavioral science in the crosshairs: The FBI file on B. F. Skinner: Behavior and Social Issues Vol 10(1-2) Spr-Fal 2000, 101-109. *Wyatt, W. J. (2001). Some myths about behaviorism that are undone by B. F. Skinner's "The Design of Cultures": Behavior and Social Issues Vol 11(1) Fal 2001, 28-30. *Yousef, J. M. (1992). Arabic students' understanding of Skinner's radical behaviorism: Psychological Reports Vol 71(1) Aug 1992, 51-56. *Zuriff, G. E. (2003). Science and Human Behavior, dualism, and conceptual modification: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Vol 80(3) Nov 2003, 245-352. See also * Supernaturalization * Project Pigeon * Behavior Modification References * Epstein, R. (1997) Skinner as self-manager. Journal of applied behavior analysis. 30, 545-569. Retrieved from the world wide web on: June 2, 2005 from http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/articles/1997/jaba-30-03-0545.pdf Further reading Books *Bjork, D. W. (1997). B. F. Skinner: A life. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). Behaviorist at large. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). Between two lives. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). Beyond the American tradition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). The birth of a new science. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). A design for living. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *bjork, D. W. (1997). Educational engineering. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). A hill of dreams. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). Inventive beginnings. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). Master of self-management. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1997). The social inventor emerges. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Bjork, D. W. (1998). Burrhus Frederick Skinner: The contingencies of a life. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Catania, A. C., & Harnad, S. (1988). The selection of behavior: The operant behaviorism of B. F. Skinner: Comments and consequences. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *Demorest, A. (2005). Psychology's grand theorists: How personal experiences shaped professional ideas. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. *Harnad, S. (1988). What are the scope and limits of radical behaviorist theory? New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *Hineline, P. N. (1995). The origins of environment-based psychological theory. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press/Greenwood Publishing Group. *Kuhlmann, H. (2005). Living Walden Two: B. F. Skinner's Behaviorist Utopia and Experimental Communities. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Papers External links *Learno.com - A website set up by academics which allows anyone to create and learn using the Programmed Learning method orginally devised by B F Skinner *[http://www.bfskinner.org/instruction/setup.exe The Analysis of Behavior]: A Program for Self-Instruction, in software. *National Academy of Sciences biography. *The B. F. Skinner Foundation. *B.F. Skinner profile, NNDB. *Los Horcones Walden Two Community. *I was not a lab rat, response by Skinner's daughter about the "baby box". http://www.snopes.com/science/skinner.asp more on the urban myth of Skinners daughter Articles by Skinner: *Two Types of Conditioned Reflex and a Pseudo Type (1935) *"Superstition" in the Pigeon (1947) *Are Theories of Learning Necessary? (1950) Skinner, B. F. Skinner, B. F. Skinner, B. F. Skinner, B. F. Skinner, B.F.